21. International Covenant On Civil And Political Rights Declaration of human rights, the ideal of free human beings enjoying civil are createdwhereby everyone may enjoy his civil and political rights, as well http://www.efc.ca/pages/law/un/intl-covenant-civil-political-rights.html

U.N.T.S. No.14668, vol.999 (1976), p.171 INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS The States Parties to the present Covenant, Considering that, in accordance with the principles proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations, recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Recognizing that these rights derive from the inherent dignity of the human person, Recognizing that, in accordance with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , the ideal of free human beings enjoying civil and political freedom and freedom from fear and want can only be achieved if conditions are created whereby everyone may enjoy his civil and political rights, as well as his economic, social and cultural rights, Considering the obligation of States under the Charter of the United Nations to promote universal respect for and observance of, human rights and freedoms, Realizing that the individual, having duties to other individuals and to the community to which he belongs, is under a responsibility to strive for the promotion and observance of the rights recognized in the present Covenant, Agree upon the following articles: PART I Article 1 All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.

22. International - Row Erupts In Britain Over Ensuring Civil Rights of its own 300year-old legal tradition and embrace a human rights system that thepower to enforce a right of privacy and other fundamental civil liberties is http://csmweb2.emcweb.com/durable/1997/10/30/intl/intl.1.html

Thursday October 30, 1997 Edition Row Erupts in Britain Over Ensuring Civil Rights Alexander MacLeod, Special to The Christian Science Monitor LONDON Britain is about to turn its back on a key aspect of its own 300-year-old legal tradition and embrace a human rights system that has operated in continental Europe since the end of World War II. But the government's decision to give British judges the power to enforce a right of privacy and other fundamental civil liberties is running into fire from critics. They call it a betrayal of parliamentary democracy and a sure-fire recipe for conflict between the judicial and legislative branches of government. GUN CONTROL PROTEST: Britons have no constitutional right to such actions as free speech. (MICHAEL STEPHENS/AP) Unlike the United States, Britain until now has not codified its civil rights. Journalists, for example, have no First Amendment-style guarantees of free speech and freedom of the press. Home Secretary Jack Straw declared, "This is an historic day," when the new human rights bill was published last Friday, in the first step toward legislative approval. "We are about to bring British rights home," he said. Britain signed the European Convention on Human Rights after World War II, but never incorporated the convention into its own laws. As a result, appeals against British legal decisions have to be lodged with the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, France. Cases take an average of five years to resolve and seldom cost individuals less than £30,000 [$48,000].

23. IranianVoice.org - Human Rights Watch And Amnesty Intl Banned From EU-Iran Dialo human rights Watch and Amnesty intl Banned from EU any decision to initiate a humanrights dialogue will intellectuals and representatives of civil society and http://66.34.243.131/iran/html/article661.html

Search Create an account Main Menu Home Submit News Archive FAQ ... Contact Us Iran Headline News We Support Human Rights Watch and Amnesty Intl Banned from EU-Iran Dialogue on Human Rights Posted on Sunday, December 15 @ 02:51:04 CST by iranianvoice Anonymous submits " December 14, 2002 Iran va Jahan IRVAJ Network Delegates from Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have been denied permission to attend the EU-Iran dialogue on human rights issues scheduled to take place in Tehran on Monday, December 16. The decision to ban the two largest international human rights organizations comes amid reports of a new round of crackdown against students. In the past three days, student sources in Iran have confirmed that more than 12 of their members have been taken by "plain-clothed" elements of the Ministry of Information. There are further reports that hardline conservative clerics are preparing to takeover power to save the Islamic regime from internal collapse. Supported by Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, the supreme leader, the hard-line clerics have resolved to reject the controversial legislation championed by Mohammad Khatami and face the consequences should he carry out his threat to resign. Speaking on the British policy vis a vis Iran, the British Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, said on Tuesday that Britain is monitoring the situation in Iran "with very great care." He also expressed that Britain wants to see "Iran as a country, where the ruling majority of people are Muslim, being able to celebrate their religion, but also operate within a popularly democratic framework."

24. Human Rights Syllabi: University Of Chicago arise in applying refugee standards in civil war situations? of Refugee Law 199031 Harvard intl LJ, 166 European Court of human rights, Chahal v UK extracts. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/AIUSA-syl/bhabha.html

Human Rights Syllabi: Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley University of Chicago Human Rights, State Sovereignty and Persecution: Issues in Comparative Refugee Law Autumn 1998 -Tuesday: 4-6pm. Course No. 577 Jacqueline Bhabha Required Texts: G. Goodwin-Gill, The Refugee in International Law (2nd Edition), Clarendon Press [1996] [Text 1]. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], The State of the World's Refugees, Oxford University Press [1997] [Text 2]. 3.UNHCR, Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status , UNHCR [1979] [Text 3]. Books Reserved: K. Musalo, J. Moore and R.A. Boswell, Refugee Law and Policy: Cases and Materials, Carolina Academic Press [1997]. U.S. Committee for Refugees, World Refugee Survey [1997]. James C. Hathaway, The Law of Refugee Status, Butterworths,[1991]. T.A. Aleinikoff, D.A. Martin and H. Motomura, Immigration : Process and Policy, 3rd Edition, West Publishing Co., [1995]. Assigned Materials: These will be available before and during the course. Primary sources and case materials are included. Schedule Week 1: October 6 Overview of the Seminar; the Relationship between State Rights and Individual Rights; the Dynamics of Displacement.

25. Human Rights Syllabi: University Of San Francisco 2. human rights Law International, Regional, National Donnelly, intl. human rights,Intro., ch. 1, Appendix; Covenants on Pol.,civil,Econ.,Social,Cultural http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/AIUSA-syl/elias.html

Human Rights Syllabi: Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley University of San Francisco Spring 1997-Politics 352 Professor Robert Elias Office: 529 University Center Office Hours: TR 11-12 noon, or by appointment Phone: x6349 (Office) Outline Objectives Resources Requirements Outline January 23 Introduction: The Human Dimension Bringing Repression to Life Baraheni, God's Shadow (excerpts) January 28, 30 What are Human Rights? Universalism vs. Relativism Competing Perspectives: Ideological, Cultural, Religious Eide, "Human Rights Movement" pp. 367-384 Salmi, Violence and Democratic Society, ch. 2 Musaffar, "Who Defines Human Rights?" Causes of Repression: Human Nature, Institutions, Systems? Ekins, A New World Order, Intro., ch.1 Adams, et al., "Seville Statement on Violence" Desmond, "Roots of Oppression" February 4-20 Nation-State System: Victimizer or Guardian? Order Versus Justice: Realism Versus Idealism Donnelly, International Human Rights, ch. 2 Human Rights Law: International, Regional, National Donnelly

26. Behind The Kashmir Conflict - The Applicable International Law (Human Rights Wat human rights law prohibits the arbitrary deprivation of life under any circumstances.The government of India is a party to the International Covenant on civil http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kashmir/intl-law.htm

Summary Recommendations Background Table of Contents ... HRW Home The Applicable International Law Human Rights Law International Humanitarian Law Human Rights Law International human rights law prohibits the arbitrary deprivation of life under any circumstances. The government of India is a party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Article 6 of the ICCPR expressly prohibits derogation from the right to life. Thus, even during time of emergency, "[n]o one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his life." The ICCPR also prohibits torture and other forms of cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment. Articles 4 and 7 of the ICCPR explicitly ban torture, even in times of national emergency or when the security of the state is threatened. The Indian army, Special Task Force, Border Security Force, and state-sponsored paramilitary groups and village defence committees-the principal government forces operating in Jammu and Kashmir -have systematically violated these fundamental norms of international human rights law. Under international law, India's state-sponsored militias are state agents and therefore must abide by international human rights and humanitarian law. The government of India is ultimately responsible for their actions. International Humanitarian Law International humanitarian law, also known as the laws of war, apply when there is a situation of international and internal "armed conflict." Although Human Rights Watch has maintained that the struggle in Kashmir in the early 1990s did meet this threshhold, it is less clear that international humanitarian law applies to the conflict given the dimunition of fighting throughout much of Kashmir apart from the Kargil region, and the decreased capacity of the militant groups to conduct effective military operations. However, the fact that in Doda and in other border regions militant forces regularly engage Indian army troops, and the size of the armed forces deployed on both sides, suggests that international humanitarian law may still apply.

27. International Human Rights Seminar Asian Law Caucus – promotes, advances and represents the legal and civil rightsof the works to stop torture and other serious human rights abuses around the http://www.uchastings.edu/library/Legal Research/Class Pages/intl-humanrights.ht

breadCrumbs(">"); International Human Rights Seminar symbol. (Last Updated October 11, 2002.) Library Info. U.N. European ... Misc. Library Information Where to Start: To find a topic or to get started on your research, you might want to look at Hastings Law Library Human Rights Research Guide , or browse the topics covered in the Encyclopedia of Human Rights, 2nd edition (JC571 E67 1996; Reserve stacks), or scan the topics covered at the University of Minnesota Human Rights Library Finding Books: You can search Hastings Online Public Access Catalog (HOPAC) for print titles at the Hastings Law Library. You can s earch other Library Catalogs (including ) for additional print resources at local libraries. Or you can search "WorldCat" on FirstSearch to find out if any books exist on your topic at any library worldwide. (Note: FirstSearch is only available from computers on campus.) If you do find a book on your topic that we don't have at Hastings, you can submit a request to have the book borrowed by Hastings through inter-library loan (ILL). It can take up to two weeks to get books from ILL, so plan ahead.

28. Research Guide - International Human Rights Research law librarians http//www.ll.georgetown.edu/intl/intl/human.html. HOPAC using thesubjects human rights Periodicals or civil rights - Periodicals http://www.uchastings.edu/library/Legal Research/Research Guides/humanrights.htm

breadCrumbs(">"); Research Guide - International Human Rights Research This guide provides an overview of international human rights research tools at the Hastings Law Library and on the Internet. It includes information about indexes, books, periodicals, and websites with useful human rights information. The resources listed should give you a good start on your research and lead you to more specific documents and materials with in-depth subject-specific human rights information This guide includes: Where to Start: Research Guides, Encyclopedias, and Bibliographies Collections of Human Rights Documents Compilations of Human Rights Resources (and Documents) Organized by Subject United Nations Human Rights Resources and Documents ... Locating Periodical Articles on Various Human Rights Issues PRINT RESOURCES Encyclopedia of Human Rights, 2nd edition JC571 E67 1996 (reserve stacks) Encyclopedia of Human Rights Issues Since 1945 JC571 L26 1999 (reserve stacks) Encyclopedia of Public International Law KZ1160 E53 (6th floor stacks) [Volume 2 includes a good discussion of various human rights issues.]

29. UnderstandingPrejudice.org: Links On Prejudice - Racism Then human rights Concerns Along the USMexico Border (Amnesty intl.); The 1950s OperationWetback á la 1990s (Arizona Daily Wildcat). The Struggle for civil rights http://www.understandingprejudice.org/links/racthen.htm

document.write(''); Racism Then The following links relate to historic forms of racial prejudice and discrimination, including slavery, Jim Crow, the internment of Japanese Americans, the U.S. civil rights movement, and other topics. You may also wish to read more about old-style racism in the Reading Room U.S. History and Prejudice: Slavery Anti-Slavery.org (world's oldest international human rights group) Remembering Slavery (from the Smithsonian Institution) Encyclopaedia of Slavery (slave accounts and much more) Chronology on the History of Slavery (from 1619 to 1789) Slave Narratives (from the U.S. Library of Congress) Understanding Slavery (for students and teachers) Slave Records (AAGSNC Genealogical Resource Directory) Jim Crow Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia (at Ferris State University) Jim Crow History (for teachers and students alike) The Origin of Jim Crow (from the Afro-American Almanac) Remembering Jim Crow (from American RadioWorks) Jim Crow Laws (samples from the MLK National Historic Site) African American Life During Jim Crow (University of Virginia) Internment of Japanese Americans Densho (comprehensive educational site) Confinement and Ethnicity (U.S. National Park Service)

30. UnderstandingPrejudice.org: Links On Prejudice - Heterosexism National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (US national civil rights group); intl. and Friendsof LGBT Persons (PFLAG); FamilyNet (a human rights Campaign initiative); http://www.understandingprejudice.org/links/hetero.htm

document.write(''); Heterosexism The following links relate to heterosexism, homophobia, antigay violence, sexual orientation, gender identity, and other topics. You may also wish to read more about heterosexism in the Reading Room Sexual Prejudice and Antigay Violence: Sexual Prejudice: Heterosexism and Homophobia Sexual Prejudice: Understanding Homophobia and Heterosexism (GLAAD) How Homophobic Are You? (online questionnaire) Gay, Lesbian and Straight Educ. Network (reducing bigotry in schools) Campaigns to Reduce Homophobia and Heterosexism Stop Homophobia (Australian anti-violence campaign) Anti-Homophobia (British campaign to stop homophobic bullying) Campaign to End Homophobia (educational and networking group) Citizens Against Homophobia (offers free print and radio ads) Dr. Laura Campaign (from the Horizons Foundation) Hate Crimes and Antigay Violence Hate Crimes Research Network (Portland State University) Hate Crimes Today: An Age-Old Foe In Modern Dress (APA report) (has online reports) Uniform Crime Reports (annual hate crime statistics from the FBI) Matthew Shepard Foundation (in memory of an antigay murder victim) Other Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Topics:

31. Crisisweb: The International Crisis Group's On-line System prosecution for crimes of omission involving cases of gross violation of human rights.2. Accede to the International Covenant on civil and Political rights. http://www.intl-crisis-group.org/projects/showreport.cfm?reportid=227

32. Links Congressman John Lewis (DGA) Signer of civil rights for intl. TravelersAct (HR 1996). Center for Judicial Accountability. human rights Web. http://www.ceada.homestead.com/links.html

Boycott Delta Airlines - for violations of our privacy Law Info Ashcroft Plan Would Further Curb Civil Liberties and By-pass Courts ACLU Opposes Ashcroft Government Surveillance Bill; ... Strip Searches and X-Rays CEADA'S LINKS Customs Practices Under Fire CEADA'S LINKS Strip Searches and X-Rays X-Rated X-Ray The Naked Truth Airport Security Over Privacy? ... Soul of America News Articles - Customs Violates Travelers Other News Articles Titles and Dates Racial Profiling Bills - Flying While Black Civil Rights Organizations Government Agencies African-American Websites News Websites Whistleblower Websites Travel Websites Other Important Websites Airline News Privacy Activist Takes on Delta Judge to Hear Air ID Challenge Disputed Air ID Law May Not Exist Stop the New Patriot Act ... Boycott Delta Airlines - for violations of our privacy

33. Human Rights Information From Government Sources Green Library, intlDocs DPI/1676 Over 100 sponsored by the UN High Commissioner onHuman rights. International Covenant on civil and Political rights (CCPR). 24 http://www.stanford.edu/group/Jonsson/hrts.html

Human Rights Information from Government Sources Jonsson Library of Government Documents Guide to Government Publications Series CONTENTS Introduction Indexes Encyclopedias, Yearbooks Compilations ... About this Page INTRODUCTION This guide provides an introduction to basic information sources located in the Jonsson Library of Government Documents relating to study of human rights issues worldwide. INDEXES AccessUN . New Canaan, CT: Newsbank, 1966- . Electronic index to UN masthead documents, official records and selected sales publications including journal articles published since 1966. Permits searching across multi-year time span on various subjects. Includes full text resolutions, selected meeting records, and links to UN documents on the web. Allows searching by various document numbers and for speeches by representatives of various countries. Serves also as guide to the corresponding microfiche collection shelved as Microfiche 959. The URL for the AccessUN database is: http://www-sul.stanford.edu/su_proxy_access_un Human Rights on CD-ROM New York: UN, 1995.

34. Political Science Resources/International Relations and news sources; Arms control, human rights, terrorism, warfare America's wars,including Revolution, civil War, World Terror Info Bank (intl Association for http://www.lib.umich.edu/govdocs/psintl.html

Political Science Resources International Relations Frames Index No-Frames Version Comprehensive Listings Decolonization ... United States Foreign Policy Last updated on January 29, 2003 Comprehensive Sites Foreign Affairs Online (University of Virginia) Comprehensive annotated guide to foreign relations from a U.S. perspective General reference sources, U.S., foreign, IGO and NGO web sites One of the best lists of UN related organizations History and focus of international relations think tanks International and Area Studies (Larry Schankman) Lists and annotates top regional studies web sites International news sources International Relations (U.Brit.Colum.) Unique links from a Canadian perspective Major subjects include peace/security/defense, national,ethnic or religious conflicts, and international economic development International Relations Links Links to discussion groups, journals, newspapers, and international law sites with a Canadian/U.S. focus Maintained by the Canadian Institute of International Affairs PRAXIS (UPenn) Links to international governmental and non-governmental, regional, and social work organizations

35. Bibliography On African Americans & Human Rights Through Utilization of the United National International human rights Provisionsand J. intl. of NonSelf-Execution of the Covenant on civil and Political http://www.hamline.edu/law/scottinstitute/BIBLIO.htm

Compiled by the Scott Institute Staff Compilers’ Note: This bibliography is an on-going project of the Institute and is primarily designed to aid the academic and research activities of the Institute and students at Hamline University School of Law. The materials listed below have been selected to provide a bibliography of Diplomatic History and International Law as they relate to African American experience from the 1440s and the beginning of European involvement with the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade down through the present day. ALWD Citation Manual Guide to International Human Rights Practice rd ed. Transnational Publishers, Inc. 1999). Slavery Convention, 60 U.N.T.S. 253, entered into force March 9, 1927 (ratified by U.S. 1929 with 1 reservation) United Nations Charter, 59 Stat. 1031, T.S. 993, 3 Bevans 1153, entered into force October 24, 1945 (ratified by U.S. 1945) Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. res. 217 (AIII), UN Doc. A/810 at 71, adopted December 10, 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 78 U.N.T.S. 277 entered into force January 12, 1954 (ratified by U.S. 1988 with 2 reservations, 5 understandings, and 1 declaration) Protocol Amending the Slavery Convention, 182 U.N.T.S. 51, entered into force July 7, 1955 (ratified by U.S. 1956)

36. Teacher Pre-viewing Activity 2 of human rights www.un.org/Overview/rights.html; the International Covenant on civiland Political rights www.efc.ca/pages/law/un/intlcovenant-civil-political http://canada.justice.gc.ca/en/ps/sg/p1/ti/pvo2t.html

Pre-Viewing Activity, Option 2 Introducing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Preamble, Universal Declaration of Human Right s To the Teacher Introduction: Students will analyze the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and represent their understanding of one of its articles in a creative way. Getting Ready Students should have an understanding of how the UN was developed and why human rights assumed global importance in 1948. Provide a copy of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights www.un.org/Overview/rights.html the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights www.efc.ca/pages/law/un/intl-covenant-civil-political-rights.html the International Covenant on Economic and Social Rights www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_cescr.htm Try These For Discussion or Writing What responsibilities correspond to each of the rights? Students can categorize the rights in the UDHR using these categories: Civil and Political Rights, Economic and Social Rights, and Environmental, Cultural and Developmental Rights, or a category of their own. They can then look at the two Covenants to see how the drafters classified these rights. Have each group share their classifying. Go to the Student page Aboriginal Justice Learning Network Child Support Crime Prevention ... More...

37. Human Rights And Equal Opportunity Commission Website: Legal Information monitoring the International Covenant on civil and Political http//www.ll.georgetown.edu/intl/cals/asylumresearch humanrights and human Welfare http//www.du http://www.hreoc.gov.au/legal/links.html

Legal Links Here are links to some web-sites that the Legal Section has found to be useful research resources for issues relating to human rights and discrimination law. Of course, these are only a selection of the vast number of human rights/discrimination related sites on the web. Given that the internet changes constantly, you may wish to suggest additions or notify us if a particular link is not working. Email us at: webfeedback@humanrights.gov.au Australia Entities/tribunals with jurisdiction over Australian state government discrimination legislation Anti-Discrimination Board of New South Wales - http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/adb Anti Discrimination Commission of Queensland - http://www.adcq.qld.gov.au/ Equal Opportunity Commission of South Australia - http://www.eoc.sa.gov.au/public/ Equal Opportunity Commission Victoria - http://www.eoc.vic.gov.au/ ... ACT Human Rights Office International United Nations United Nations - http://www.un.org/rights/

38. Privacy And Human Rights - Overview International Covenant on civil and Political rights, http Convention for the Protectionof human rights and Fundamental Nadine Strossen, Recent US and intl. http://www.gilc.org/privacy/survey/intro.html

GLOBAL INTERNET LIBERTY CAMPAIGN P RIVACY AND H UMAN R IGHTS An International Survey of Privacy Laws and Practice Acknowledgments This report was written by Privacy International with a grant provided by the Open Society Institute. The primary authors of this report are David Banisar of the Electronic Privacy Information Center and Simon Davies of Privacy International. Additional research was provided by Wayne Madsen, Michael Kassner, Ronnie Breckheimer, and Shauna Van Dongen. Knowledgeable individuals from academia, government, human rights groups and other fields were asked to submit reports and information. Their reports were supplemented with information gathered from Constitutions, laws, international and national government documents, news reports, human rights reports and other sources. A list of contributors is located at Appendix D. OVERVIEW Privacy is a fundamental human right recognized in the UN Declaration of Human Rights, the International Convenant on Civil and Political Rights and in many other international and regional treaties. Privacy underpins human dignity and other key values such as freedom of association and freedom of speech. It has become one of the most important human rights issues of the modern age. The publication of this report reflects the growing importance, diversity and complexity of this fundamental right. This report provides details of the state of privacy in fifty countries from around the world. It outlines the constitutional and legal conditions of privacy protection, and summarizes important issues and events relating to privacy and surveillance.

39. PEACE, CONFLICTS AND INTERNATIONAL WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS Women in the Aftermath of civil War, Final international organizations with women'shuman rights interests are wisc.edu/libraries/WomensStudies/intl.htm, which http://www.library.wisc.edu/libraries/WomensStudies/peace.htm

PEACE, CONFLICTS AND INTERNATIONAL WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS Internet Workshop at the 24th Annual Conference of the UW System Women's Studies Consortium and the 15th Annual Conference of the Wisconsin Institute for Peace and Conflict October 22, 1999, Univ. of Wisconsin-Platteville presented by Phyllis Holman Weisbard, UW System Women's Studies Librarian (Updated periodically thereafter) Outline of Topics International Women's Peace Organizations International Peace Organizations With Women's Sections or Projects Largely Local Women's Peace Organizations, But with International Interests Women in Conflict Areas ... Women's Human Rights International Women's Peace Organizations Women Building Peace http://www.international-alert.org/women/home.html is a campaign whose objectives include strengthening the protection and participation of refugee and internally displaced women, including women in peace negotiations, putting women at the heart of reconstruction and reconciliation, and more. The Millennium Peace Prize for Women is a part of the campaign.

40. Www.qrd.org/qrd/world/misc/intl.law.and.sexual.orientation the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on civil and Political rights.Article 2 of the Universal Declaration of human rights provides Everyone is http://www.qrd.org/qrd/world/misc/intl.law.and.sexual.orientation

INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PRINCIPLES RELATING TO SEXUAL ORIENTATION - SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR THE U.S.A. INTERNATIONAL BILL OF HUMAN RIGHTS The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted and proclaimed by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948, sets out the principles which, together with the two International Covenants, form the International Bill of Human Rights. Many of the principles therein now arguably form part of customary international law. In addition, some states, including Canada, have ratified the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Article 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides: Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status... The phrase 'other status' also appears in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Article 2 of the latter Covenant provides: Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the present Covenant, without distinction of any kind such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Where not already provided for by existing legislation or other measure, each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to take the necessary steps, in accordance with its constitutional processes and with other provisions of the present Covenant, to adopt such legislative or other measures as may be necessary to give effect to the rights recognized in the present Covenant. Article 26 of the Covenant provides: All persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protective against discrimination on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. THE HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEE The Human Rights Committee is established by the ICCPR. The Committee reviews periodic reports submitted by States Parties to the Covenant in accordance with Article 40. The Human Rights Committee thus has competency to consider allegations of discrimination in any grounds, including the ground of sexual orientation, in relation to the rights provided in the Covenant. On occasion the Committee raises the issue of discrimination on the ground of sexual orientation when considering States PartiesU periodic reports, however the Committee has no systematic policy in this regard. Non-governmental organizations can bring specific issues to the attention of the Human Rights Committee when it considers these reports. In 1993 the International Lesbian and Gay Association, an international non-governmental organization representing the interests of lesbians and gay men everywhere, was granted consultative status with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations. COMMUNICATIONS REGARDING SEXUAL ORIENTATION UNDER THE OPTIONAL PROTOCOL Where a State has ratified the Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, the Human Rights Committee may receive and consider communications from individuals claiming to be victims of violations of any of the rights set forth in the Covenant. The Committee has received such communications alleging discrimination on the ground of sexual orientation or preference. The Committee is currently considering a complaint by an Australian man that the laws criminalizing homosexual behaviour in the Australian state of Tasmania violate his rights under the Covenant. The communication has been ruled admissible, however a decision on the merits is not expected until early 1994. Nonetheless, the fact that the Committee has ruled the communication as admissible is in itself significant, whatever the eventual finding on the merits of the complaint. It would thus appear that sexual orientation is a prohibited ground of discrimination in the International Bill of Human Rights, and in particular under the two Covenants. There is also jurisprudence from the European Court of Human Rights to the effect that criminal laws prohibiting some homosexual acts violate the European Convention of Human Rights. This is a further indication of the development of international law in this area. IMPLICATIONS FOR THE U.S.A. The United States of America has ratified the ICCPR, but not the Optional Protocol thereto nor the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Sodomy laws still exist in about half the States of the U.S.A. The U.S.A. filed its first report due under the ICCPR in September 1993. It would be interesting to see if any mention was made of such statutes in this report, and how the U.S.A. views its international obligations when they impact on State as opposed to Federal jurisdiction. In any case, if and when the Human Rights Committee finds in favour of the complainant in the Australian case noted above, it will be even clearer that the U.S.A. is in breach of its international obligations under the Covenant. The time for another concerted lobbying campaign looks good for summer 1994. The Human Rights Committee decision should be out, the Gay Games will be held in New York, along with the Annual World Conference of the International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA) from June 25-July 3. ILGA is planning a march on the United Nations to highlight discrimination against gay men and lesbians around the world on June 26. David Patterson 12 November 1993

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