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         Kyrgyzstan History:     more books (71)
  1. Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tadjikistan, Turkey and Iran by Dilip Hiro, 2009-06-11
  2. Kyrgyzstan by Claudia Antipina, Temirbek Musakeev, 2007-03-27
  3. Life At the Edge of the Empire: Oral Histories of Soviet Kyrgyzstan by Sam Tranum, 2009-05-30
  4. Executive Report on Strategies in Kyrgyzstan, 2000 edition (Strategic Planning Series) by The Kyrgyzstan Research Group, The Kyrgyzstan Research Group, 2000-11-02
  5. Historical Dictionary of Kyrgyzstan (Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East) by Rafis Abazov, 2004-01-01
  6. History of the Turkic People: Khazars, Eurasian Avars, Old Turkic Script, History of Uzbekistan, History of Kazakhstan, History of Kyrgyzstan
  7. The Educational System of Kyrgyzstan (Aacrao Country Guide) by Chris J. Foley, 2003-06
  8. Language Attitudes Towards Kyrgyz And Russian: Discourse, Education And Policy in Post-Soviet Kyrgyzstan by Britta Korth, 2005-09-16
  9. Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan, Tajikstan Turky, and Iran by Dilip Hiro, 2011-05-31
  10. KYRGYZSTAN AND KYRGYZ: An entry from Macmillan Reference USA's <i>Encyclopedia of Russian History</i> by ROGER KANGAS, 2004
  11. Kyrgyz: Ethnic Group, Kyrgyzstan, Islam in Kyrgyzstan, History of Kyrgyzstan, History of Kazakhstan, History of Tuva, History of China, Hunting with Eagles, Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA), Turkic Peoples.
  12. History of Kyrgyzstan: Göktürks, Yuezhi, Soviet Central Asia, Tulip Revolution, Saka, Wusun, Battle of Talas, Zhetysu, Moghulistan
  13. Domestic and International Perspectives on Kyrgyzstans Tulip Revolution: Motives, Mobilization and Meanings (ThirdWorlds)
  14. Understand Kyrgyzstan: yurts, yaks, and a river of trade.(Global Village: Kyrgyzstan)(Country overview): An article from: New Moon by Viktoria Surkova, 2006-07-01

1. Lonely Planet World Guide | Destination Kyrgyzstan | History
kyrgyzstan history. The earliest notable residents of what is nowKyrgyzstan were warrior tribes of Saka (also known as Scythians
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/central_asia/kyrgyzstan/history.htm
home search help worldguide ... Related Weblinks
Kyrgyzstan
History
The earliest notable residents of what is now Kyrgyzstan were warrior tribes of Saka (also known as Scythians), from about the 6th century BC to the 5th century AD. Alexander the Great met perhaps the stiffest resistance from Saka tribes in his 4th century BC advance through Central Asia. Rich bronze and gold relics have been recovered from Scythian burial mounds at Lake Issyk-Kul and in southern Kazakstan. The region was under the control of various Turkic alliances from the 6th to 10th centuries, with a sizeable population living on the shores of Lake Issyk-Kul. Kyrgyzstan was the scene of a pivotal battle in 751, when the Turks and their Arab and Tibetan allies drove a large Tang Chinese army out of Central Asia. Ancestors of today's Kyrgyz people probably lived in Siberia's upper Yenisey basin until at least the 10th century, when under the influence of Mongol incursions they began migrating south into the Tian Shan - more urgently with the rise of Jenghiz Khan in the 13th century. Present-day Kyrgyzstan was part of the inheritance of Jenghiz's second son, Chagatai. Peace was shattered in 1685 by the arrival of the ruthless Mongol Oyrats of the Zhungarian Empire, who drove vast numbers of Kyrgyz south into present-day Tajikistan. When the Oyrats were defeated by the Manchu (Qing), the Kyrgyz became de facto subjects of the Chinese, who mainly left them to their nomadic ways. In the 18th century the feudal tentacles of the Kokand khanate began to encircle them, though the feisty Kyrgyz constantly made trouble from their Tian Shan redoubts. As the Russians moved closer in the 19th century, various Kyrgyz tribal leaders made their own peace with Russia or Kokand. Russian forces slowly rolled over the towns of Kokand, their advance culminating in the defeat of Tashkent in 1865. The Kyrgyz were gradually eased into the tsar's provinces of Ferghana and Semireche.

2. Kyrgyzstan
History of Kyrgyzstan,
http://www.heritagefilms.com/Kyrgyzstan.htm
History of Kyrgyzstan
WELCOME
HISTORY AND MAPS
Map of Kyrgyzstan
Jewish History of Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan, officially Republic of Kyrgyzstan (1994 estimated population 4,698,000), c.79,000 square miles (204,600 square kilometers), central Asia, formerly a constituent republic of the USSR. It borders China (South Eeast), Kazakhstan (North), Uzbekistan (West), and Tajikistan (South West). The Kyrgyz (or Kirghiz), a nomadic, Turkic-speaking, Sunni Muslim people with Mongol strains, comprise a little over half the population; Russians, Uzbeks, and others make up the rest. The official language is Kyrgyz, but Russian is also spoken.
Bishkek formerly Frunze city (1989 population 616,000) is the capital of Kyrgyzstan (Kirghizia) on the Chu River. Bishkek is a transportation hub and the industrial and cultural center of Kyrgyzstan. Founded (1846) as an Uzbek fortress, it was taken in 1862 by the Russians, who called it Pishpek. In 1925 it was renamed Frunze in honor of Soviet General M.V. Frunze, and in 1936 it became the capital of the Kirghiz SSR. The city was renamed Bishkek in 1991.
The Kyrgyz emigrated in the 17th century from the region of the upper Yenisei River, where they had lived since the 7th century. The region was annexed (1855-76) by Russia and became part of the USSR in 1921 when Bolshevik forces subdued the nomadic Kyrgyz. The area became an autonomous republic of the USSR in 1926 and a constituent republic in 1936. In 1991, following the attempted hard-line coup against Soviet President Gorbachev, the republic declared its independence as Kyrgyzstan; as the central Soviet government collapsed, it joined the Commonwealth of Independent States. In 1993 a new constitution, establishing a unicameral parliament and separate heads of state and government, was adopted. Askar Akayev, who has been president of Kyrgyzstan since 1990, has sought more radical economic and political reforms than the other Central Asian republics.

3. Kyrgyzstan History
KYRGYZSTAN. The others. Relatively late (the mid1600s) the Kyrgyzstanbecame Muslim although they soon came under Chinese domination.
http://www.nationbynation.com/Kyrgyzstan/History1.html
BACK TO THE FRONT PAGE
BASIC INFO. GEOGRAPHY GOVERNMENT ... KYRGYZSTAN The Kyrgyz people date back to at least 13 centuries and were one of the significant central Asian tribes . Their territory came to be controlled by Mongols, Kalmyks, Manchus, and Russians, among others. Relatively late (the mid-1600s) the Kyrgyzstan became Muslim although they soon came under Chinese domination. In 1868 the area became a Russian protectorate and, several years later, was incorporated into the greater Russian empire. The Communist Revolution was accompanied by chaos and confusion in the region by in 1936, it was made a formal Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union. Along with other of the former SSRs, Kyrgyzstan chose independence after the fall of communism, but it did join the Commonwealth of Independent States.

4. Kyrgyzstan History - Flags, Maps, Economy, Geography, Climate, Natural Resources
kyrgyzstan history Flags, Maps, Economy, Geography, Climate, Natural Resources,Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics
http://www.workmall.com/wfb2001/kyrgyzstan/kyrgyzstan_history_index.html

  • Country Ranks
    Kyrgyzstan History Index
    http://workmall.com/wfb2001/kyrgyzstan/kyrgyzstan_history_index.html
    Source: The Library of Congress Country Studies
    • History Introduction
    • Historical Setting
      NOTE: The information regarding Kyrgyzstan on this page is re-published from The Library of Congress Country Studies. No claims are made regarding the accuracy of Kyrgyzstan History information contained here. All suggestions for corrections of any errors about Kyrgyzstan History should be addressed to the Library of Congress.

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    Your Internet e-mail address: http://workmall.com/wfb2001/kyrgyzstan/kyrgyzstan_history_index.html Revised 24-Jul-02 Photius Coutsoukis
  • 5. Kyrgyzstan: History
    encyclopediaEncyclopedia—kyrgyzstan history. Formerly known as theKara black Kyrgyz to distinguish them from the Kazakhs (at
    http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/world/A0859155.html

    Encyclopedia
    Kyrgyzstan
    History
    Formerly known as the Kara [black] Kyrgyz to distinguish them from the Kazakhs (at one time called Kirghiz or Kyrgyz), the Kyrgyz migrated to Kyrgyzstan from the region of the upper Yenisei, where they had lived from the 7th to the 17th cent. The area came under the rule of the Kokand In 1990, Askar Akayev, president of the republic's Academy of Sciences and a non-Communist, was elected president by the legislature. After fighting off an attempted coup in 1991, the government declared Kyrgyzstan independent of the Soviet Union. Kyrgyzstan subsequently became a member of the Russian-dominated Commonwealth of Independent States , and a new consitutution was approved. Akayev, who remained president, fostered ties with China and other neighboring nations and initiated an ambitious program of free-market reforms. He retained his post in the 1995 elections, which were denounced by opposition leaders but given guarded support by UN observers. Also in 1995, Kyrgyzstan, along with Belarus and Kazakhstan, signed a pact with Russia providing for close economic cooperation. In 1996, Akayev won a referendum on amending the constitution to greatly increase presidential powers. Islamic militants seized several towns near the border with Tajikistan (where a civil war began in 1992) in 1999. Sections in this article:

    6. Kyrgyzstan: History
    encyclopediaEncyclopedia—kyrgyzstan history. Formerly known as theKara black Kyrgyz to distinguish them from the Kazakhs (at
    http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0859155.html

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    History
    Formerly known as the Kara [black] Kyrgyz to distinguish them from the Kazakhs (at one time called Kirghiz or Kyrgyz), the Kyrgyz migrated to Kyrgyzstan from the region of the upper Yenisei, where they had lived from the 7th to the 17th cent. The area came under the rule of the Kokand In 1990, Askar Akayev, president of the republic's Academy of Sciences and a non-Communist, was elected president by the legislature. After fighting off an attempted coup in 1991, the government declared Kyrgyzstan independent of the Soviet Union. Kyrgyzstan subsequently became a member of the Russian-dominated Commonwealth of Independent States , and a new consitutution was approved.

    7. Kyrgyzstan: History
    Back to Fact Monster, this page was printed from Factmonster.com www.factmonster.com/ce6/world/A0859155.html.encyclopediaEncyclopedia—kyrgyzstan history.
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    Encyclopedia
    Kyrgyzstan
    History
    Formerly known as the Kara [black] Kyrgyz to distinguish them from the Kazakhs (at one time called Kirghiz or Kyrgyz), the Kyrgyz migrated to Kyrgyzstan from the region of the upper Yenisei, where they had lived from the 7th to the 17th cent. The area came under the rule of the Kokand In 1990, Askar Akayev, president of the republic's Academy of Sciences and a non-Communist, was elected president by the legislature. After fighting off an attempted coup in 1991, the government declared Kyrgyzstan independent of the Soviet Union. Kyrgyzstan subsequently became a member of the Russian-dominated Commonwealth of Independent States , and a new consitutution was approved. Akayev, who remained president, fostered ties with China and other neighboring nations and initiated an ambitious program of free-market reforms. He retained his post in the 1995 elections, which were denounced by opposition leaders but given guarded support by UN observers. Also in 1995, Kyrgyzstan, along with Belarus and Kazakhstan, signed a pact with Russia providing for close economic cooperation. In 1996, Akayev won a referendum on amending the constitution to greatly increase presidential powers. Islamic militants seized several towns near the border with Tajikistan (where a civil war began in 1992) in 1999. Sections in this article:

    8. ALMISBAH: Regions, Nations And Peoples: Particular Regions: Turkic Peoples Of Mi
    ALMISBAH Regions, Nations and Peoples Particular Regions Turkic Peoples of MiddleAsia kyrgyzstan history, Politics (WWW), 1. Center for Social Research.
    http://ssgdoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/vlib/ssgfi/subject/almisbah_ssg0302080503_
    ALMISBAH:
    Regions, Nations and Peoples: Particular Regions: Turkic Peoples of Middle Asia: Kyrgyzstan: History, Politics (WWW)
    1. Center for Social Research Source Type Research Institutes and Programms URL http://www.angelfire.com/ar/researchkyrgyzstan/ Keywords Kyrgyzstan; Bishkek; institute; staff; politics; bibliography; social studies; books; Central Asia; maps; documents; law DETAILS Contents Clarity Index Links 2. Electionworld : Elections around the world Source Type Virtual Libraries, Internet Directories and Link Lists URL http://www.electionworld.org/ Keywords politics; elections; political parties; directories; Afghanistan; Saudi Arabia; Kuwait; Qatar; United Arab Emirates; Oman; Bahrain; Iraq; Syria; Lebanon; Jordan; Mauritania; Algeria; Libya; Egypt; Sudan; Cyprus; Ethiopia; Eritrea; Djibouti; Somalia; Iran; Tajikistan; Turkey; Armenia; Georgia; Azerbaijan; Uzbekistan; Turkmenistan; Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan DETAILS Contents Clarity Index Links
    SSG-FI Home ALMISBAH Source Type Subject This document created using allegro-C V20

    9. History Of Kyrgyzstan - Wikipedia
    History of Kyrgyzstan. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Theearliest descendants of the Kirghiz people, who are believed to
    http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan
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    History of Kyrgyzstan
    From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The earliest descendants of the Kirghiz people, who are believed to be of mixed Mongol Turkic , and Kipchak descent, probably settled until the 10th century around what is now the Tyva region of the Russian Federation . With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the Kyrgyz migrated south. They did not emerge as a distinct ethnic group until the 15th century. Various Turkic peoples ruled them until 1685, when they came under the control of the Mongol Oirots. Islam is the predominant religion in the region, and most of the Kyrgyz are Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi school. In the early 19th century, the southern territory of Kyrgyzstan came under the control of the

    10. NCBuy: Country Reference - Kyrgyzstan History
    Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyzstan Population 4,822,166 (July 2002 est.) CapitalBishkek. Kyrgyzstan Backgrounds History. In the early 19th
    http://www.ncbuy.com/reference/country/backgrounds.html?code=kg&sec=backhistory

    11. Kyrgyzstan
    History. The earliest notable residents of what is now Kyrgyzstan were warrior tribesof Saka (also known as Scythians), from about the 6th century BC to the
    http://www.alliancescp.org/html/countries/ky3.html
    History
    The earliest notable residents of what is now Kyrgyzstan were warrior tribes of Saka (also known as Scythians), from about the 6th century BC to the 5th century AD. Alexander the Great met perhaps the stiffest resistance from Saka tribes in his 4th century BC advance through Central Asia . Rich bronze and gold relics have been recovered from Scythian burial mounds at Lake Issyk-Kul and in southern Kazakstan. The region was under the control of various Turkic alliances from the 6th to 10th centuries, with a sizeable population living on the shores of Lake Issyk-Kul Kyrgyzstan was the scene of a pivotal battle in 751, when the Turks and their Arab and Tibetan allies drove a large Tang Chinese army out of Central Asia . Ancestors of today's Kyrgyz people probably lived in Siberia 's upper Yenisey basin until at least the 10th century, when under the influence of Mongol incursions they began migrating south into the Tian Shan - more urgently with the rise of Jenghiz Khan in the 13th century. Present-day Kyrgyzstan was part of the inheritance of Jenghiz's second son, Chagatai.

    12. World66.com's Travel Guide To Kyrgyzstan
    kyrgyzstan history, culture, geography, natural resources, government,politics, economics and demographics. no reviews yet.
    http://www.world66.com/Page.Asp?Loc=399&Sec=4768

    13. World History Archives: The History Of Qirghizstan (Kyrgyzstan)
    World history Archives features a collection of documents related to the political history of the Central Asian country. The history of Qirghizstan (kyrgyzstan). Hartford Web Publishing is not the author of the documents in World history
    http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/53/index-e.html
    The history of Qirghizstan (Kyrgyzstan)
    Hartford Web Publishing is not the author of the documents in World History Archives The history in general of Central Asia
    The contemporary political history of Qirghizstan (Kyrgyzstan) The social history of Qirghizstan (Kyrgyzstan) ... The culture history of Qirghizstan (Kyrgyzstan)

    14. ICARP - Kyrgyzstan
    Flags of the World kyrgyzstan This site provides a current representation ofthe flag of kyrgyzstan and detailed description and history of the flag.
    http://www.icarp.org/kyrgyz.html

    15. 1Up Info > Kyrgyzstan > Historical Background In Kyrgyzstan | Kyrgyzstani Inform
    1UpInfo Country Studies Country Guide for kyrgyzstan . Three years later, however, that quiescence ended, and kyrgyzstan's history as a separate nation began.
    http://www.1upinfo.com/country-guide-study/kyrgyzstan/kyrgyzstan7.html
    You are here 1Up Info Kyrgyzstan
    History
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    Kyrgyzstan
    Kyrgyzstan Historical Background ELEVATED TO THE STATUS of a union republic by Joseph V. Stalin in 1936, the Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic was until 1990 one of the poorest, quietest, and most conservative of all the Soviet republics. It was the Kyrgyz Republic that celebrated the election of a sheepherder as president of its parliamentary executive committee, the Presidium, in 1987. Three years later, however, that quiescence ended, and Kyrgyzstan's history as a separate nation began. Kyrgyzstan began the new phase of its existence by declaring independence in August 1991. At that point, it possessed a combination of useful resources and threatening deficiencies. Geographic location fits in both categories; landlocked deep inside the Asian continent, Kyrgyzstan has minimal natural transportation routes available to serve its economic development, and its isolation has been an obstacle in the campaign to gain international attention. On the other hand, Kyrgyzstan also is isolated from most of the Asian trouble spots (excepting Tajikistan), making national security a relatively low priority. The natural resources that Kyrgyzstan possessesprimarily gold, other minerals, and abundant hydroelectric powerhave not been managed well enough to make them an asset in pulling the republic up from the severe economic shock of leaving the secure, if limiting, domain of the Soviet Union. In the mid-1990s, the most ambitious economic and political reform program in Central Asia caused more frustration than satisfaction among Kyrgyzstan's citizens, largely because the republic inherited neither an economic infrastructure nor a political tradition upon which to base the rapid transitions envisioned by President Askar Akayev's first idealistic blueprints. Although some elements of reform (privatization, for example) went into place quickly, the absence of others (credit from a commercial banking system, for example) brought the overall system to a halt, causing high unemployment and frustration. By 1995, democratic reform seemed a victim of that frustration, as Akayev increasingly sought to use personal executive power in promoting his policies for economic growth, a pattern that became typical in the Central Asian countries' first years of independence.

    16. Kyrgyzstan - History
    .
    http://www.dd.volga.ru/itmc/kyrgyzstan/k_history.htm
    Survey Economy History Holidays Culture Climat and weather
    Akayev's radical economic reforms – popular support for which was shown by a referendum – have gained strong support in the West and agencies such as the IMF and the World Bank have granted loans to keep the economy and the new currency afloat. Akayev is using the Turkish model of a non-fundamentalist Islamic policy coupled with Western free-market economics as the basis for his reforms. In December 1995, Akayev was re-elected for a second 5-year term defeating two other candidates and attracting 60% of the vote.
    The Kyrghyz Republic is a sovereign and unitary republic based on democracy and principles of rightful temporal state.
    The Kyrghyz Republic sovereignty is not restricted and works on all the territory.
    The people of Kyrghyzstan is the object of souvereignty and the only sauce of state power of the Kyrhgyz Republic.

    17. Kyrgyzstan Links
    kyrgyzstan OnLine. NEWS SOURCES. SOURCE DOCUMENTS. Constitution ofkyrgyzstan. history. World history Archives history of kyrgyzstan.
    http://www.nationbynation.com/Kyrgyzstan/Links.html
    BACK TO THE FRONT PAGE
    BASIC INFO. GEOGRAPHY GOVERNMENT
    BACK TO THE FRONT PAGE
    BASIC INFO. GEOGRAPHY GOVERNMENT ... World History Archives: History of Kyrgyzstan

    18. World Travel Guide - Kyrgyzstan - History And Government
    World Travel Guide kyrgyzstan - history Government - includes informationon the constitution and politics. WORLDTRAVELGUIDE.NET,
    http://www.travel-guide.com/data/kgz/kgz580.asp
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    ... Kyrgyzstan
    History and Government
    History:
    Government: Under the constitution accepted by referendum in 1994, legislative power is vested in the bicameral 105-strong Jogorku Kenesh . One-third of its members sit in a permanent lower chamber; the other two-thirds meet twice a year in the upper chamber. The whole parliament is elected every five years, as is the president, who holds executive power along with an appointed prime minister and Council of Ministers, subject to the approval of the Jogorku Kenesh
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    19. MapZones.com History
    kyrgyzstan, history, Back to Top. The Kyrgyz are believed to haveoriginally inhabited the upper Yenisey River in central Siberia.
    http://www.mapzones.com/world/asia/kyrgyzstan/historyindex.php
    Country Info Kyrgyzstan Introduction Kyrgyzstan General Data Kyrgyzstan Maps Kyrgyzstan Culture ... Kyrgyzstan Time and Date Kyrgyzstan History Back to Top The Kyrgyz are believed to have originally inhabited the upper Yenisey River in central Siberia. By the 9th century they spoke a Turkic language. In the late 16th century the Kyrgyz settled in the area that is now Kyrgyzstan. The region was conquered by the Oirats, a Mongol people, in the late 17th century. In the 19th century it came under the jurisdiction of the Uzbek khanate (state) of Quqon. The first Russian invasion of the region took place in the mid-19th century. Russian forces conquered the Quqon khanate in 1876, thereby incorporating present-day Kyrgyzstan into the Russian Empire. Russia then designated Central Asia the Turkistan Kray within Russia. In 1916 many Kyrgyz and other Central Asian peoples waged a large-scale revolt against Russian rule. The Russian government responded with force, which compelled many Kyrgyz to seek refuge in China, across the eastern border. 16th–17th century most of the remaining Kyrgyz tribes lived in the Tien Shan range as mountain nomads, divided into two wings (left and right), though the advancing Russians still encountered remnants of the Yenisey branch of the Kyrgyz. In 1703, under pressure from the Dzungars (a tribe of western Mongols), the Yenisey Kyrgyz moved to the Semirechye, but hostilities between the two peoples continued until China's defeat of the Dzungar leader Amursana in 1757. In the mid-18th century, nominally at least, the Kyrgyz became part of the Ch'ing (Manchu) empire of China. Between 1825 and 1830 they were conquered by Muhammad Ali, the khan of Kokand; Bishkek (Pishpek), the future capital city of the Kyrgyz, was built by that khanate. Through these contacts, Islam was gradually adopted by the more southern Kyrgyz, although it has remained merely a veneer on the national culture.

    20. Kyrgyzstan: History
    Chronicles the ancient and modern history of the Central Asian country formerly under Soviet control. Land, People, and Government. Economy. history. Bibliography. Economy. kyrgyzstan. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia
    http://infoplease.lycos.com/ce6/world/A0859155.html
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    History
    Formerly known as the Kara [black] Kyrgyz to distinguish them from the Kazakhs (at one time called Kirghiz or Kyrgyz), the Kyrgyz migrated to Kyrgyzstan from the region of the upper Yenisei, where they had lived from the 7th to the 17th cent. The area came under the rule of the Kokand In 1990, Askar Akayev, president of the republic's Academy of Sciences and a non-Communist, was elected president by the legislature. After fighting off an attempted coup in 1991, the government declared Kyrgyzstan independent of the Soviet Union. Kyrgyzstan subsequently became a member of the Russian-dominated Commonwealth of Independent States , and a new consitutution was approved. Akayev, who remained president, fostered ties with China and other neighboring nations and initiated an ambitious program of free-market reforms. He retained his post in the 1995 elections, which were denounced by opposition leaders but given guarded support by UN observers. Also in 1995, Kyrgyzstan, along with Belarus and Kazakhstan, signed a pact with Russia providing for close economic cooperation. In 1996, Akayev won a referendum on amending the constitution to greatly increase presidential powers. Islamic militants seized several towns near the border with Tajikistan (where a civil war began in 1992) in 1999.
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